County Lines & Cuckooing

"County Lines is one of the fastest-growing forms of criminal exploitation in the UK, drawing children and vulnerable adults into drug supply networks and subjecting them to significant physical and emotional harm. Many of these individuals are not willing participants - they are victims of modern slavery. As expert witnesses, we bring clarity to complex cases, ensuring their exploitation is recognised and justice is delivered."

– Cláudia Costa, Research Assistant

What is County Lines & Cuckooing?

  • County Lines refers to the exploitation of individuals, often children, to transport drugs from urban areas to smaller towns, coastal regions and rural locations across the UK.
  • The term “County Line” relates to the dedicated mobile phone lines used by networks to facilitate drug supply.
  • Victims are often forced to travel hundreds of miles from home, stay in unfamiliar areas and engage in illegal activities under threat or coercion.
  • County Lines activity extends beyond drug supply and includes offences such as fraud, burglary and sexual exploitation. 
  • Cuckooing (home invasion) occurs when a vulnerable person’s home is taken over by drug networks for drug storage or supply, providing a base for County Lines operations.

Who is Affected by County Lines?

  • Children aged 13-17 are most frequently exploited, but adults with vulnerabilities such as social isolation, poor mental health, cognitive impairments and/or drug dependency are also targeted.
  • Many victims are excluded from education and are already known to local authorities and in the criminal justice system.
  • In 2024, 10% (1,845) of NRM (the UK’s framework for identifying victims of modern slavery) referrals were for County Lines exploitation, with 76% (1,396) of those being male children.

What is the Relationship Between Modern Slavery and County Lines & Cuckooing?

  • County Lines exploitation is recognised as a form of criminal exploitation and therefore modern slavery.
  • Victims may appear as offenders but are exploited for criminal gain.
  • The Modern Slavery Act 2015 protects those exploited through County Lines and cuckooing.

Examples of County Lines & Cuckooing in the UK

  • The way in which County Lines exploitation presents can vary greatly. However, some indicators may include unexplained money, gifts, new possessions or changes in lifestyle that the individual cannot account for.
  • Victims may frequently travel to unfamiliar towns or cities, experience repeated missing episodes or be observed associating with older individuals already linked to criminal activity.
  • It is common to see possession of multiple mobile phones - including “burner” phones - as well as items such as weapons or drugs used to facilitate the drug network.
  • Some victims present with visible injuries, tiredness, weight loss or poor hygiene, often resulting from long periods away from safe environments and prolonged involvement in drug supply.
  • In cases involving cuckooing, signs may include frequent and unexplained visitors to a property, noise complaints or anti-social behaviour, damage to the home and residents appearing anxious, withdrawn or going missing for extended periods.

  • Hierarchical network structure: central controllers delegate tasks to lower-tier 'runners' and local dealers.
  • Use of “lines” or dedicated phones: communication is managed from a distance to obscure leadership.
  • Movement and displacement: children or vulnerable adults are relocated frequently to reduce police detection.
  • Debt bondage: victims are told they owe money for lost drugs or money, reinforcing compliance.
  • Cuckooing dependency: victims’ homes become bases of operation, creating fear of eviction or retaliation.
  • 24/7 availability: victims are pressured to be constantly contactable, with little rest or privacy.
  • Use of taxis, trains or hire cars: to avoid surveillance and maintain supply routes.
  • Normalisation of exploitation: victims often perceive their situation as “part of the job” or a route to quick money.

  • Be empathetic, build trust and avoid victim-blaming.
  • Map and log travel patterns, associates, possessions and changes in behaviour.
  • Work collaboratively with police, social care, education, housing and voluntary agencies.
  • Refer individuals to the NRM as soon as possible to ensure formal identification and safeguarding.

  • Section 45 provides a defence for victims who commit offences due to exploitation.
  • Children do not need to prove compulsion; adults must show both exploitation and compulsion.
  • Our expert reports assess trafficking, grooming, coercion, deception and debt bondage in County Lines and cuckooing cases.

  • We provide evidence-based assessments of County Lines and cuckooing dynamics.
  • Our reports explain control mechanisms, recruitment methods and trauma responses.
  • We assess vulnerabilities to help judges and juries understand the wider context of exploitation.

  1. Contact us to discuss the specifics of the case.

  2. Agree the scope and timeline.

  3. Provide relevant documents such as prosecution evidence, housing documentation and NRM papers.

  4. We carry out a detailed review of the evidence, assess the client where possible and provide a report meeting legal standards.

  5. We attend court to present findings and explain County Lines and cuckooing dynamics.

  • Provide clear case instructions and full disclosure.
  • Consider a psychologist or psychiatrist where trauma or cognitive impairment is suspected, particularly in cases involving children and young adults.
  • Allow adequate time for thorough report preparation.

Founded by Dr Grace Robinson in 2019.

OUR PRIMARY AIM IS TO SUPPORT VICTIMS AND INCREASE AWARENESS OF MODERN SLAVERY.

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